Starting from birth, a Xhosa person goes through graduation stages which recognize his growth and assign him a recognized place in the community. Each stage is marked by a specific ritual aimed at introducing the individual to their counterparts and hence to the ancestors. Starting from imbeleko, a ritual performed to introduce a new born to the ancestors, to umphumo, from inkwenkwe (a boy) to indoda (a man).
These rituals and ceremonies are still practiced today, but many urbanized Xhosa people do not follow them rigidly.
One traditional ritual that is still regularly practiced is the manhood ritual, a secret rite that marks the transition from boyhood to manhood (Ulwaluko).
After ritual circumcision, the initiates (abakhwetha) live in isolation for up to several weeks, often in the mountains. During the process of healing they smear white clay on their bodies and observe numerous taboos.
In modern times the practice has caused controversy, with over 300 circumcision- and initiation-related deaths since 1994, and the spread of sexually transmitted diseases including HIV via the practice of circumcising initiates with the same blade.
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Girls are also initiated into womanhood (intonjane). During intonjane, a girl is secluded at her homestead, where she is taught womanhood values and norms, and prepared for marriage. Girls are taught the responsibilities and rights of being a wife, a mother and a leader. Female initiates are not circumcised.
The custom of intonjane has fallen into disuse in many rural areas and has acquired the character of a fertility rite as married women who have difficulty becoming pregnant are sent back to their fathers' homes to undergo this rite.
Other rites include the seclusion of mothers for ten days after giving birth, and the burial of the afterbirth and umbilical cord near the village. This is reflected in the traditional greeting Inkaba yakho iphi?, literally "Where is Your Navel?" The answer tells someone where you live, what your clan affiliation is, and what your social status is and contains a wealth of cultural information. Most importantly, it determines where you belong.
Traditional Xhosa Marriage
Labola was a fundamental element of Xhosa marriage. It involved the transfer of substantial amounts of wealth in cattle or an equivalent from the bridegroom (and his family) to the guardian (normally the father) of the bride. The number of cattle and the timing of their delivery were matters of long negotiation.
Much has been written about lobola and its significance. African marriage was primarily a joining of two families rather than a matter between two individuals. As a result, negotiations and decision-making regarding any proposed marriage were in the hands of the family heads. In theory (except in the case of older heads of their own homesteads), all marriages were 'arranged' and the wishes of young people were not regarded as crucial.
Before the Missionaries arrive to change the Xhosa ways of living, each household had a man with his wives, married sons with their wives and children, and unmarried daughters. Marriage was polygamous and patriarchal. Each woman in the household who has been married a year or more had her own hut, and also a store-hut.
Huts were arranged in a semicircle, which, if the nature of the site permit, faces east. The open segment of the circle was filled by a cattle kraal. The senior male of the household was the owner of the house. The hut of his mother, or if she is dead, and that of his first wife(the 'great wife') are built opposite the gate of the cattle kraal.
Households are defined by sharing a cooking area and eating together. The ideal is that married sons will stay with their parents in patrilineal extended families. However, as a result of a shortage of land and restrictions on the size of residential plots, the tendency is away from extended families and toward nuclear families.
Households in urban areas consist of nuclear families extended by married and/or unmarried relatives and tenants. There is a fairly high incidence of matrifocal families, often extending over four generations.
Depending on their age, children are raised by their fathers, mothers, older sisters, grandparents, and other close relatives. From the age of about eight years boys in rural areas are assigned tasks such as herding small animals, and their fathers teach them the tasks assigned to men.
Girls are drawn into the realm of household chores, and their mothers teach them the tasks assigned to women. Obedience to both parents is expected and can be enforced through corporal punishment. Respect must be shown to all older people.
Travelling through the Transkei in South Africa, one very often sees a young maiden with her tummy full of scars of equal size, which run from between her breasts down to the navel, and horizontally across the sides of her tummy, while many bear the scars on their backs as well.
Investigation proved beyond doubt that this custom is carried out by most young Tembu girls for the sake of beautifying the body. The operators, elderly women, are experts at the job, performing the operation whenever a young maiden requests it.
The main type of musical expression is singing, usually accompanied by dancing. Traditional musical instruments include musical bows, drums, and trumpets made from the horns of animals. Diviners use drums to accompany their dances.
Choir singing is a popular form of musical expression in both rural and urban areas. Jazz and "township music" have a large following in urban areas.
Xhosa people currently make up approximately 18% of the South African population. Under apartheid, adult literacy rates were as low as 30% and in 1996 studies estimated the literacy level of first-language Xhosa speakers at approximately 50%. There have been advances since then, however.
Education in primary-schools serving Xhosa-speaking communities is conducted in isiXhosa, but this is replaced by English after the early primary grades. Xhosa is still considered as a studied subject, however, and it is possible to major in Xhosa at university level.
Other rites include the seclusion of mothers for ten days after giving birth, and the burial of the afterbirth and umbilical cord near the village. This is reflected in the traditional greeting Inkaba yakho iphi?, literally "Where is Your Navel?" The answer tells someone where you live, what your clan affiliation is, and what your social status is and contains a wealth of cultural information. Most importantly, it determines where you belong.
Traditional Xhosa Marriage
Labola was a fundamental element of Xhosa marriage. It involved the transfer of substantial amounts of wealth in cattle or an equivalent from the bridegroom (and his family) to the guardian (normally the father) of the bride. The number of cattle and the timing of their delivery were matters of long negotiation.
Much has been written about lobola and its significance. African marriage was primarily a joining of two families rather than a matter between two individuals. As a result, negotiations and decision-making regarding any proposed marriage were in the hands of the family heads. In theory (except in the case of older heads of their own homesteads), all marriages were 'arranged' and the wishes of young people were not regarded as crucial.
Before the Missionaries arrive to change the Xhosa ways of living, each household had a man with his wives, married sons with their wives and children, and unmarried daughters. Marriage was polygamous and patriarchal. Each woman in the household who has been married a year or more had her own hut, and also a store-hut.
Huts were arranged in a semicircle, which, if the nature of the site permit, faces east. The open segment of the circle was filled by a cattle kraal. The senior male of the household was the owner of the house. The hut of his mother, or if she is dead, and that of his first wife(the 'great wife') are built opposite the gate of the cattle kraal.
Households are defined by sharing a cooking area and eating together. The ideal is that married sons will stay with their parents in patrilineal extended families. However, as a result of a shortage of land and restrictions on the size of residential plots, the tendency is away from extended families and toward nuclear families.
Households in urban areas consist of nuclear families extended by married and/or unmarried relatives and tenants. There is a fairly high incidence of matrifocal families, often extending over four generations.
Depending on their age, children are raised by their fathers, mothers, older sisters, grandparents, and other close relatives. From the age of about eight years boys in rural areas are assigned tasks such as herding small animals, and their fathers teach them the tasks assigned to men.
Girls are drawn into the realm of household chores, and their mothers teach them the tasks assigned to women. Obedience to both parents is expected and can be enforced through corporal punishment. Respect must be shown to all older people.
Travelling through the Transkei in South Africa, one very often sees a young maiden with her tummy full of scars of equal size, which run from between her breasts down to the navel, and horizontally across the sides of her tummy, while many bear the scars on their backs as well.
Investigation proved beyond doubt that this custom is carried out by most young Tembu girls for the sake of beautifying the body. The operators, elderly women, are experts at the job, performing the operation whenever a young maiden requests it.
The main type of musical expression is singing, usually accompanied by dancing. Traditional musical instruments include musical bows, drums, and trumpets made from the horns of animals. Diviners use drums to accompany their dances.
Choir singing is a popular form of musical expression in both rural and urban areas. Jazz and "township music" have a large following in urban areas.
Xhosa people currently make up approximately 18% of the South African population. Under apartheid, adult literacy rates were as low as 30% and in 1996 studies estimated the literacy level of first-language Xhosa speakers at approximately 50%. There have been advances since then, however.
Education in primary-schools serving Xhosa-speaking communities is conducted in isiXhosa, but this is replaced by English after the early primary grades. Xhosa is still considered as a studied subject, however, and it is possible to major in Xhosa at university level.
The second ceremony, where Tembakazi was wearing the dark clothes, is called ‘ukudliswa amasi’. This signifies that the bride is welcome as a daughter into the groom’s family. The second ceremony is ‘ukwamkelwa kukaMakoti’ (welcome of the Xhosa bride) and the significance of the second set of clothes is that as a Makoti, the small blanket is to cover all the bad of the family as the new family would confide the family secrets to her. The towel that is worn close to the bride’s chest is to keep her house secrets to herself so as not to embarrass her husband and make him or their home a subject of gossip. Looking down in amaXhosa culture is a show of respect to elders, as looking them straight in the eye means you are challenging them . So you never look an adult in the eye unless you are challenging them . So in a Makoti, it signifies submissiveness to the new family elders.
Xhosa people at a funeral
The effects of government polices during the years of apartheid can still be seen in the poverty of the Xhosa who still reside in the Eastern Cape. During this time, Xhosa males could only seek employment in the mining industry as so-called migrant labourers. Since the collapse of apartheid, individuals can move freely.
After the breakdown of apartheid, migration to Gauteng and Cape Town is increasingly common, especially amongst rural Xhosa
people
The effects of government polices during the years of apartheid can still be seen in the poverty of the Xhosa who still reside in the Eastern Cape. During this time, Xhosa males could only seek employment in the mining industry as so-called migrant labourers. Since the collapse of apartheid, individuals can move freely.
After the breakdown of apartheid, migration to Gauteng and Cape Town is increasingly common, especially amongst rural Xhosa
people
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There are quite a few Xhosa people who became well-known like singer Miriam Makeba (photo above), Stephen Biko and bishop Desmond Tutu. Most famous of them all of course is Nelson Mandela who has grown into a worldwide symbol not only of a deeply felt striving for freedom, but also of tolerance and reconciliation. The world will miss him.
In South Africa, the Zulu Reed Dance or Umhlanga takes place every year in September at the Enyokeni Royal Palace in Nongoma. The girls come from all parts of Zululand and in recent years there are also smaller groups from Swaziland and Botswana.
In Swaziland the girls gather at the Queen Mother's royal village, which currently is Ludzidzini Royal Village. After arriving at the royal residence, the women disperse the following night to surrounding areas and cut tall reeds. The following night they bundle them together and bring them back to the Queen Mother to be used in repairing holes in the reed windscreen surrounding the royal village. After a day of rest and washing the women prepare their traditional costumes consisting of a bead necklace, rattling anklets made from cocoons, a sash, and skirt. Many of them carry the bush knife they used to cut the reeds as a symbol of their virginity.
Today's Reed Dance ceremony developed in the 1940s and 50s from the Umcwasho custom where young girls were placed in age regiments to ensure their virginity. Once they reached the age of marriage they would perform labor for the Queen Mother followed by dancing and a feast. The official purpose of the annual ceremony is to preserve the women's chastity, provide tribute labour for the Queen Mother, and produce solidarity among the women through working together.
Nowadays most of the Zulu girls look quite fashionable with their trendy hairstyles, fancy sunglasses and sometimes even smartphones. What we see here is more the reflection of a world in transition than a representation of ethnic authenticity. Nevertheless beautiful… still…
The women sing and dance as they parade in front of the royal family as well as a crowd of spectators, tourists and foreign dignitaries. After the parade, groups from select villages take to the centre of the field and put on a special performance for the crowd. The King's many daughters also participate in the Umhlanga ceremony and are distinguished by the crown of red feathers in their hair. One of the main objectives of the Reed Dance historically is for the king to choose another wife.
In South Africa, the ceremony Umhlanga takes place every year in September, at the Enyokeni Royal Palace in Nongoma. The girls come from all parts of Zululand, and in recent years there are also smaller groups from Swaziland, as well as more distant places such as Botswana and Pondoland. All girls are required to undergo a virginity test before they are allowed to participate in a royal dance, though in recent years the testing practice has been met with some opposition.
The girls wear traditional attire, including beadwork, and ‘izigege’ and ‘izinculuba’ that show their bottoms. They also wear anklets, bracelets, necklaces, and colourful sashes. Each sash has appendages of a different colour, which denote whether or not the girl is betrothed.
As part of the ceremony, the young women dance bare-breasted for their king, and each carries a long reed, which is then deposited as they approach the king.The girls take care to choose only the longest and strongest reeds, and then carry them towering above their heads in a slow procession, up the hill to the palace.
If the reed should break before the girl reaches the palace, it is considered to signal that the girl has already been sexually active.
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